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Ask Dr. Universe Archives
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How many species do we have on Earth? – Varish, 10, Michigan

Dear Varish,

If we count all the species that humans have described so far, it’s about 2 million. New species get added all the time—about 15,000 of them every year.

But we have no idea how many species we’ve never met. Scientists think there could be 5 million species out there. Or maybe billions.

We’ll only know for sure when we describe all those organisms.

I asked my friend Rich Zack what that means. He’s an insect scientist at Washington State University.

He told me how we identify and name a new species.

Imagine we’re in my backyard collecting insects together. We see a … » More …

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Why do scientists use Latin when they name organisms? – Arielle, New York

Dear Arielle,

Language changes all the time. Words get new meanings. New words get made up.

I talked about it with my friend Rich Zack. He’s an insect scientist at Washington State University. He does taxonomy. That’s the science of naming and classifying living things.

The way language changes is amazing—and skibidi. It’s neat that language morphs as we use it. But that can limit how well we understand each other. Some readers might see “skibidi” and think I passed out and hit random keys.

That’s the main reason scientists use Latin or ancient Greek to name things. They’re dead languages. Nobody uses … » More …

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What is the likelihood that all your lysosomes could burst at the same time? Would you spontaneously dissolve? – Annika, 12, Pennsylvania

Dear Annika,

I’d love to read a creepy science fiction story where people dissolve.

I asked my friend Anders Omsland if that could happen. He’s a biomedical researcher at Washington State University.

He told me a lysosome is a specialized compartment in a cell. It’s like a little sack of digestive enzymes. Those are proteins that break stuff down. Our cells use lysosomes to help destroy germs or recycle old or messed up cell parts.

Lysosomes are basically the cell’s trash and recycling centers.

“I don’t think it’s possible for lysosomes to all pop at the same time,” Omsland said. “They don’t really explode … » More …

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What is a supernova? – Grady, 7, Oklahoma

Dear Grady,

I was exploding with excitement to ask my friend Guy Worthey about supernovas. He’s an astronomer at Washington State University.

He told me a supernova is a very energetic explosion in space.

There are different kinds of supernovas. One kind—called a type II supernova—happens when a really big star dies.

“Why would a star bother to blow up?” Worthey said. “It seems dramatic. Human beings don’t blow up when they die.”

But humans don’t have cores that do nuclear fusion. Deep inside a star, protons and neutrons bang together and make new chemical elements. That nuclear fusion is why stars shine.

… » More …

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How do bugs cling onto things without falling off? – Carmen, 7, Washington state

Dear Carmen,

Right now, there’s a fly walking on the window in my office. I asked my friend Rich Zack how it does that. He’s an insect scientist at Washington State University.

It turns out my window isn’t as smooth as it looks. If we zoomed in on the glass, we’d see bumps and dips. It’s kind of like a rock face or a climbing wall.

“Surfaces look pretty smooth,” Zack said. “But if you get really, really close, you see there are all kinds of little indentations and crevasses. Even a pane of glass is not perfectly smooth. It’s got little nicks and … » More …

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Why do glow-in-the-dark things light up when it’s dark? – Haygarth, 5, United Kingdom

Dear Haygarth,

I love glow-in-the-dark stickers. I leave them next to a sunny window for a little while. Then turn off the lights and watch them glow.

I asked my friend Hergen Eilers how those stickers work. He’s a physicist at Washington State University.

He told me that glow-in-the-dark things use a type of phosphorescence. That means they absorb energy—like light—and then glow. A material that can do that is called a phosphor.

Glowing in the dark works because of electrons.

Everything in the universe is made of atoms. That includes you, me, whatever you’re reading this note on—and glow-in-the-dark stickers.

All those … » More …

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What's the weirdest thing found on Mars? – Remmi, 8, Texas

Dear Remmi,

Mars is about 140 million miles from our cozy planet. A human mission to that cold, rocky neighbor would mean being away from Earth for about 3 years. But the things those explorers would see and learn would be mind-blowing.

I asked my friend Katie Cooper about that. She’s a scientist at Washington State University. She studies how geology and physics work on Earth and other places in space.

She told me the weirdest thing on Mars is a ginormous volcano.

“Olympus Mons is the largest volcano in the solar system,” Cooper said. “It dwarfs Earth’s volcanoes! Its massive size helps … » More …

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What are protons made of? – Dean, 11, Utah

Dear Dean,

There’s a pencil lying on my desk right now. It’s not much to look at, but what if I could zoom way in and see the protons and other itty-bitty stuff inside it?

My friend Ryan Corbin told me it would be like looking at a bubbling soup of fundamental particles. He’s a quantum physicist at Washington State University.

He told me that protons—along with neutrons—form the nucleus in the middle of an atom.

“Atoms make up all the stuff that we see,” Corbin said. “An atom has neutrons and protons in its nucleus. Protons have a positive electric charge. Neutrons … » More …

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How do sedatives work (like for endoscopy)? – Zara, 11, Colorado

Dear Zara,

I love visiting the vet. But, like many cats, sometimes I need medicine to keep me calm.

I talked about that with my friend Lais Malavasi. She’s a veterinarian at Washington State University.

She told me about two kinds of calming medicine. Vets and human doctors use them to reduce pain and fear.

Sedatives make patients feel relaxed and sleepy. But they’re mostly aware of what’s going on. When the medicine wears off, they’ll probably have fuzzy memories.

Anesthesia makes patients unconscious. They can’t feel pain or move. They aren’t aware of what’s going on. When they wake up, they won’t … » More …

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Why do people have allergies? – Hailey, 11, Washington state

Dear Hailey,

Under my lab coat, I have a splendid fur coat. That can be a problem when I work with someone who’s allergic to cats.

I asked my friend Ed Johnson about it. He teaches classes about the human body at Washington State University.

He told me that allergies happen when your immune system overreacts to a normal thing it perceives as a threat to your body. That thing can be pollen, dust, food, medicine, insect venom or something else. It can be bits of fur and shed skin called cat dander.

“The immune system evolved to protect the body,” Johnson said. … » More …

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Are fishes related to humans? – Sarah, 9, Nigeria

Dear Sarah,

Tuna, salmon, mackerel. Cats like me are famously big fans of fish. But I’ve never looked at my afternoon sushi and wondered if it’s related to my human friends.

So, I asked one of those friends named Thomas Siek. He’s a biological anthropologist at Washington State University. He studies how humans evolved.

He told me that fish and humans are distant relatives. All vertebrates—animals with backbones—are related.

“Humans and fish aren’t close evolutionary cousins,” Siek said. “We’re part of the same phylum called Chordata. We share a common ancestor. Those in Chordata have backbones. So, this will also include birds, dogs, … » More …

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Do plants have feelings or consciousness? – Ella, 10, Wisconsin

Dear Ella,

I love plants. But when I hug a tree, does it love me back? Does it think about anything at all?

I talked about your question with my friend Michael Knoblauch. He’s a plant scientist at Washington State University.

He told me that whether or not plants have feelings or conscious thought is an open question. Right now, most scientists think it’s unlikely.

Animals like us feel and think—and we’re aware that we feel and think. Scientists believe that has to do with how our brains evolved.

Plants don’t have brains and nervous systems like ours. They can send and receive … » More …

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How do glasses work? – Prisha, 8, Pennsylvania

Dear Prisha,

I got glasses as a kitten. I put on my new spectacles and was floored by the crisp details. I had no idea you could see individual leaves on trees. I thought everyone saw a green blur.

I talked about that with my friend Dr. Rachna Narula. She’s an eye doctor—called an optometrist—at Washington State University.

She told me that glasses help direct light to the correct spot in the eye so we can see.

“If someone's eyeball is too short or too long, glasses help focus the image on the retina because that’s where the person can see,” Narula said.

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What is the largest insect in the world? – David, 10, Wisconsin

Dear David,

I like big bugs. I cannot lie.

But which insect is the biggest? I asked my friend Rich Zack. He’s an insect scientist at Washington State University.

He told me the answer depends on how you define big.

One way is how much matter makes up an insect’s body. The insects with the most body mass are giant beetles. These include titan beetles, Goliath beetles, rhinoceros beetles and elephant beetles. They can be the size of a mouse.

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What makes snow sparkle? – Hillary’s 1st graders, Washington State

Dear 1st graders,

I love bright, snowy days. That’s when you’ll find me building snowcats, throwing snowballs and watching the sun sparkle on the freshly fallen snow.

I asked my friend Von Walden why that sparkle happens. He’s an atmospheric scientist at Washington State University. Some of his research takes place near the North Pole and the South Pole.

He told me that snow sparkles because of the way snowflakes interact with the sun.

It turns out snowflakes are ice crystals. On Earth, snowflakes are hexagonal. That means they’re crystals with six sides.

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Why in the world is the ice that polar bears depend on melting? — Maeve, 7, Canada

Dear Maeve,

There’s just something special about those powerful, snow-white polar bears. That’s probably why it’s so hard to learn about what’s happening to their habitat.

I talked about that with my friend Anthony Pagano. He used to work with the grizzlies at Washington State University’s Bear Center. He studies polar bears in Alaska.

He told me that scientists classify polar bears as marine mammals—like whales, dolphins and other mammals that live in the ocean.

“They’re reliant on the sea ice that occurs over the Arctic Ocean,” he said. “They use the ice as a platform to catch seals.”

Polar bears spend … » More …

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Why do bees make honey? – Gabby, 9, Kansas

Dear Gabby,

As a science cat, I don’t stir honey into my tea or drizzle it on my biscuits. I don’t have taste receptors for sweet things. Honey doesn’t have a taste to me.

But my human friends gobble up the honey made by the Washington State University bees. I asked my friend Rae Olsson why bees make that sticky stuff in the first place. Olsson is an insect scientist.

It turns out honey is the way honey bees store food for the winter.

“Just like we store food in our refrigerators and pantries, bees turn nectar from flowers into honey, so it doesn’t spoil,” Olsson said.

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What caused the first mass extinction on Earth? – Aayush, 10, New Jersey

Dear Aayush,

It’s sad when living things go extinct. That means they’re gone forever. I think about extinct unicorns all. the. time.

My friend Jodi Rosso told me that a mass extinction is when a huge number of species die out all at once. She teaches earth science at Washington State University.

“There are periods when a whole lot of animals and plants die off in a short time,” Rosso said. “When we say a short time, we mean less than 2 million years. From a human perspective, that's forever. But in geologic time, that's short.”

Groups of living things are always expanding or shrinking their numbers. Scientists think there are as many as 10 million species on Earth right now. Between 100 and 10,000 of them go extinct every year.

A mass extinction is when big percentage of all species die off.

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Why do we get fidgety when we're bored? I have ADHD, and a lot of other people in my school do, too, so I’ve always wondered this. – Amelia, 11, Utah

Dear Amelia,

Sometimes when I’m in a boring meeting, my tail starts twitching. Or I gently rock my office chair.

I asked my friend Amanda Stueber why that helps me. She’s a psychologist at Washington State University. One thing she studies is attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

She told me that boredom happens when you have less stimulation. That means you don’t have much information coming in from your senses. Like what you see, hear, smell, taste and feel.

When there's no new or interesting info coming in, you start to feel bored and tired. The less stimulation you have, the sleepier you get.

But you can’t just fall asleep wherever you are! So you might play with your hands, bounce your legs or shift your whole body. You may doodle, click your pen or twirl your hair.

That’s your body’s way to keep you awake.

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What causes the northern lights? Are there southern lights, too? – Sebastian, 10, Minnesota

Dear Sebastian,

For many people, seeing the northern lights is the ultimate bucket list item. Lately, experiencing them has gotten a whole lot easier.

I asked my friend Michael Allen about those dancing green and pink lights. He’s an astronomer at Washington State University.

He told me that, along with its light, the sun emits charged particles—mostly protons and electrons. Those particles freely stream into space. Then, some of them bump into Earth’s magnetic field.

Earth has a magnetic field because there’s molten iron in its core. As the liquid metal moves and flows, it makes a giant magnet. The magnet is strongest near Earth’s poles. It makes loops of magnetic energy around the planet that reach out into space.

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How many atoms are in a leaf? – Lily, 8, Georgia

Dear Lily,

I love thinking about things I can’t see with just my eyes. Like the atoms that make up everything.

I asked my friend Fred Gittes how to figure out the number of atoms in a leaf. He’s a physicist at Washington State University.

He showed me a worksheet he gives his students. It included a question exactly like yours!

“It’s a question I assign college students for fun,” Gittes said.

So, you’re in great company when you ponder big questions like this.

We decided to use stoichiometry to find the answer. That’s a kind of math that scientists do to understand chemical reactions.

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Why can’t we tickle ourselves? – Malcolm, 3, Washington

Dear Malcolm,

I was surprised the first time I saw a human transform into a tickle monster. They curled up their fingers and rhythmically poked someone else’s armpits. That is something a cat would never do.

I asked my friend John Wright about it. He’s a retired psychology professor at Washington State University.

I learned that there are two kinds of tickling.

The first is the light tickle you feel when someone gently brushes your skin. Like when someone uses a feather to barely touch the inside of your arm. Scientists call that knismesis.

It turns out you can totally tickle yourself that way. But the feeling will be much more tickly if someone else does it.

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Why do trees have bark? – Grant, 5, Texas; William, 7, Virginia; Kate, 9, Florida

Dear Grant, William and Kate,

When I was a kitten, I liked to scratch tree trunks. I loved sinking my claws into their bark. Now I mostly hug trees—but I still love the way bark feels under my paws.

I asked my friend Henry Adams why trees have that tough outer layer. He’s a tree scientist at Washington State University.

He told me that bark protects trees.

“Bark is like our skin,” Adams said. “It protects trees from all kinds of attackers that might want to get in—like viruses, bacteria, fungi, insects or even non-living things like fire.”

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Does the sun orbit anything? – Kingston, 11, Illinois

Dear Kingston,

When we think about orbits, we usually picture the Earth zooming around the sun. But does the sun just sit there? Or is it on its own journey?

I asked my friend Guy Worthey. He’s a space scientist at Washington State University.

He told me that an orbit happens because the gravity from something big pulls on a moving object. The sun has lots of gravity because it’s ginormous compared to Earth. So, that gravity pulls on the Earth and holds us in orbit.

But our sun isn’t the only star. It’s one of many, many stars in the Milky … » More …

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How do we get muscles? – Jalane, 10, Ohio

Dear Jalane,

I’ve always been a bookish cat. I spend most of my time in the lab rather than running, prowling and pouncing like most felines.

But I still have super strong muscles. They’re way bigger than when I was a kitten.

I asked my friend Edward Johnson how I got so buff. He teaches classes about the human body in the School of Biological Sciences at Washington State University.

He told me that muscles are made of muscle cells. They’re also called muscle fibers or myocytes.

We usually think cells are way too small to see with our eyes. But muscle cells can be some of the longest cells in your body. They’re shaped like long tubes or hot dogs. Each muscle cell is as long as the muscle it’s part of. So a muscle cell in a grownup’s thigh muscle could be 14 inches long!

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How does sunscreen work? – Seth, 6, Virginia

Dear Seth,

Since I’m a fluffy cat, my fur protects me from the sun. But my hairless cat and human friends use sunscreen when they go outside.

I asked my friend Michael Smerdon how it works. He’s a biochemist at Washington State University.

He told me that the sun puts out different kinds of light. Some light is visible to humans. Some is invisible—like UV light.

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Do butterflies have meat in their bodies? – Fiona, 4, Iowa

Dear Fiona,

When I was a kitten, I loved chasing butterflies. It’s fun to run after them as they flit and flutter.

But I didn’t eat them.

I asked my friend Rich Zack if that was an oversight. He’s an insect scientist at Washington State University.

He told me that insects are animals with muscles just like other animals that people eat—like cows and chickens.

“Insect muscle tissue is almost exactly the same as mammalian muscle tissue,” Zack said. “So, if there were a way to get that muscle tissue and process it, you could eat an insect steak or an insect hamburger.”

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Why do birds migrate? – Lebron, 9, Virginia

Dear Lebron,

One of my favorite sights is when geese fly south in a “V” formation. As a cat, I’m pretty independent. So, I think it’s amazing to see birds fly together like that.

I talked about why birds migrate with my friend Heather Watts. She’s a biologist at Washington State University. She studies important animal behaviors like migration.

She told me that migration is a movement animals make that’s outside their normal day-to-day pattern. It’s usually a temporary movement. They leave for a little while and then come back.

Lots of animals migrate, but we usually think of birds doing it. The big reason birds migrate is to find things they need like food and places to nest.

“We think that, in most cases, birds are migrating to make use of resources—and that's usually food that's available only at some times of year,” Watts said.

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Why is the sun so hot? – Ziyonna, 11, Indiana

Dear Ziyonna,

What happens if you do a big jump? Your body goes up into the air. But then it comes back down again. The reason you don’t just keep going up, up, up is because the force of gravity pushes your body and the Earth together.

It turns out gravity is a big reason the sun is so hot. That’s what my friend Michael Allen told me. He’s an astronomer at Washington State University.

He said that, at first, the universe was like a thick soup of gas and dust. Then, gravity pushed some of the gas and dust together. That’s how stars … » More …

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What is the human brain made out of? – Trevor, 9, Illinois

Dear Trevor,

Everything we do and think is thanks to the 3-pound organ tucked into our skulls. But what is it made of?

I asked my friend Samantha Gizerian. She’s a brain scientist at Washington State University.

She told me the brain is surprisingly soft and mushy.

“We think about our other organs and tissues, and they’re squishy in a very solid way,” Gizerian said. “Like when you go to the grocery store and get a carton of meat. You can squish on the steak, right? Our other organs are mostly like that as well. But the brain is very, very delicate.”

She told me it’s more like the ground up burger people use to make meatballs. Or like soft tofu or a Jello square.

The brain is extra soft because it’s about 60% fat.

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Did man live with dinosaurs together? – Daniel, 9, Republic of Korea

Dear Daniel,

When I think about dinosaurs, I usually picture the big ones. I think of triceratops with its pointy horns or apatosaurus with its long, long neck.

I asked my friend John Blong if those dinos ever lived with people. He’s an environmental archeologist at Washington State University. He studies early humans.

He told me that people and dinosaurs never lived at the same time. Well, mostly.

Dinosaurs went extinct 66 million years ago when a giant asteroid crashed to Earth. It threw up tons of dust and soot. It made Earth super cold and dark. It stayed that way for a long time. The world became a very hard place to live. Eventually, 75% of all living things died, including all the big dinosaurs.

People didn’t live on Earth at that time. The only mammals that lived back then were tiny. They looked like shrews or moles. It would take millions of years before mammals adapted enough to become primates. Scientists think the first humans showed up about 300,000 years ago. That was long after the dinosaurs died out.

But some dinosaurs survived the asteroid.

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Why do bugs fly in a big group? What are they doing? – Hudson, 7, Washington state

Dear Hudson,

The other day I walked into a cloud of gnats. I love insects, but it was unpleasant to have all those critters fly into my whiskers.

I asked my friend Rich Zack what they were doing. He’s an insect scientist at Washington State University.

He told me that most insects are individualistic. They don’t usually fly together in groups—unless they need to mate or travel. Then, some insects form a group called a swarm.

“The purpose of the adult insect is to mate,” Zack said. “They have short lives—so short that a lot of them don’t even feed as adults. So, the mating period is very important to them.”

That’s what my gnats were doing.

The conditions outside were just right, so a bunch of male gnats showed up in the same place. When female gnats got there, it was easy for them to find a mate—because everybody was together.

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Can dogs understand what a human says? – Jonathan, 10, Illinois

Dear Jonathan,

There’s no doubt that the relationship between humans and dogs is special. But does your best pupper understand everything you tell them?

I asked my friend Cassidy Cordon. She’s a veterinarian at Washington State University.

She told me that dogs understand lots of human words. But dogs also pay attention to their human’s tone of voice and body language to figure out what the human means.

Let say you teach your dog that “walk” means you’re going to take a stroll. Your dog friend might recognize the word “walk.” But they might also notice that you’re picking up their leash or putting on your shoes. They might pay attention to how excited your voice sounds—and whether that matches your tone when you taught them the word “walk.”

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How can fish see in the water? – Dottie, 7, South Dakota

Dear Dottie,

When I was a kitten, I learned to swim by diving for coins in the pool. It wasn’t easy seeing the coins underwater. It was blurry down there.

I talked about how fish see with my friend Nora Hickey. She’s a fish veterinarian at Washington State University.

She told me that fish eyes don’t work the same way mammal eyes do—even though we have the same eye parts.

Your cornea is the clear, squishy tissue right at the front of your eye. It’s in front of the colored ring in your eye—called the iris. There’s a dark dot in the center … » More …

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Why do people get voice cracks? – Jade, 12, Montana

Dear Jade,

Have you ever heard cats yowling? It’s expressive, that’s for sure. Sometimes when I yowl or sing, my voice cracks a little bit.

I asked my friend Alisa Toy why that happens. She’s a professional singer who teaches in the School of Music at Washington State University.

She told me it has to do with the muscles that move the larynx. That’s sometimes called the voice box. It’s a hollow tube that’s important for breathing and talking.

When you talk or sing, you push air from your lungs up through your larynx. The air passes through an opening made by your vocal folds. Those are incredibly thin tissues in the middle of your larynx. They vibrate as the air whooshes past them. That vibration makes the sound that becomes your voice.

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Recently there was an online news article that mentioned cold magma that was flowing on the land. What is cold magma? – Matt, 7, Illinois

Dear Matt,

When I think about volcanoes, I picture molten magma deep inside the Earth. Or burning hot lava pouring down the side of a mountain. But you’re right that there have been news reports that mention cold lava.

I talked about what that could be with my friend Katie Cooper. She’s a geologist at Washington State University.

She told me the news may be using “cold lava” to describe a lahar. That’s a mix of water and rocky debris that sometimes whooshes down the side of a volcano. It's also called a debris flow or a volcanic mud flow.

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Why do people like cute animals more than ugly ones? – Brayden, 9, Ohio

Dear Brayden,

Not to brag, but when I was a kitten, humans would see me and squee. Maybe it was my big, sparkly eyes or my teeny, fluffy paws.

I asked my friend Giuseppe Giannotti why people found me so adorable. He’s a scientist at Washington State University. He studies the brain.

He told me that humans like cute animals because they remind them of babies.

“We’re drawn to find traits in animals that are similar to what we think is cute in humans,” Giannotti said. “The cutest things in humans are babies—you know, big heads, giant eyes, soft cheeks—and we project this to everything around us.”

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Why do birds sing in the morning? – Alexandria, 9, Wisconsin

Dear Alexandria,

I usually write answers to kids’ science questions early in the morning. I like how it’s so quiet—except for my bird neighbors singing and singing.

I asked my friend Jennifer Phillips what’s going on. She’s a bird scientist at Washington State University.

She told me birds sing in the morning to tell other birds that their territory still belongs to them.

“The morning time is usually a little bit more calm, especially in windy areas,” Phillips said. “So, it's a good time to broadcast your song and for that song to potentially travel a little farther.”

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Why do we need to hydrate? – Victor, 9, Ohio

Dear Victor,

Is there anything better than lapping up cool water on a hot day?

I talked about why we need to hydrate with my friend Ed Johnson. He teaches classes about the human body in the School of Biological Sciences at Washington State University.

It turns out that up to 60% of an adult human’s body is water. A kid’s body contains even more water than a grown up. When you were a baby, you were about 78% water.

Humans use that water for all kinds of things. It keeps you cool when you sweat. It removes waste when you pee. It moves important stuff around inside your body. It even cushions your brain and spinal cord.

But staying hydrated is really about your cells.

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How does your voice make sound? – Bianca, 6, California

Dear Bianca,

Think about all the ways you use your voice: talking, singing, whispering, shouting, yodeling. Humans make so many sounds with just their voices.

I talked about how it works with Alisa Toy. She’s a professional singer who teaches in the School of Music at Washington State University.

She told me that the human voice is the smallest instrument in the world. The parts that make the sound—called the vocal folds or vocal cords—are about as long as your thumbnail.

So, where are those tiny vocal folds and how do they do it?

Inside your throat you have two tubes. The esophagus … » More …

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What is the most dangerous insect in the world? – Juan Simon, 9, Chile

Dear Juan Simon,

The deadliest animal on Earth isn’t a shark or a bear. It’s an insect. Mosquitoes kill way more people than any other animal.

I talked about it with Jeb Owen. He’s an insect scientist at Washington State University.

He told me mosquitoes are dangerous because of the way they sometimes eat.

“Through blood feeding, mosquitoes can transmit pathogens that make people and animals sick,” Owen said.

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Why do we have nose hairs? – James and Zion, 10, Virginia

Dear James and Zion,

Despite being a curious science cat, I must confess I haven’t spent much time looking up human noses. But I have noticed that human nostrils can be a bit…furry.

I talked about what’s inside your nose with my friend Edward Johnson. He teaches classes about the human body in the School of Biological Sciences at Washington State University.

He told me that nose hairs only grow in your nose’s vestibule. That’s the inside of the part of your nostrils that you can flare out. The nose hair’s job is to filter the air you breathe in through your nose.

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Why do we need the sun? – Samai, 9, Ohio

Dear Samai ,

Right now, the sun is shining through my window. It feels warm on my muzzle.

I talked about the sun with Guy Worthey. He’s a professor of astronomy and physics at Washington State University.

He told me that our lives depend on the sun.

“The sun keeps you warm and powers everything,” Worthey said. “Without it, Earth would be a frozen nightmare.”

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Why do we change our minds? – Stella, 10, Tennessee

Dear Stella,

As a science cat, I’ve changed my mind a lot over the years. I used to wear a fancy neck scarf called a cravat all the time. Now I’m comfy in my lab coat.

I talked about that with my friend Makita White. She’s a graduate student in the psychology department at Washington State University.

She told me that we change our minds when we get new information or insight that tells us we need to make a different choice.

It turns out that we have lots of opinions and beliefs. They’re also called attitudes. We have attitudes about what we like to eat or wear. We have attitudes about other people and how the world should be.

White told me that having attitudes helps us out.

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Why are some veggies called fruits because of their seeds? – Valerie, 10, New Mexico

Dear Valerie,

Every summer I grow peppers in my garden. I always thought they were vegetables. But you’re right that my peppers have gobs of seeds like fruits do.

To figure out what’s going on, I talked with my friend Jacob Blauer. He’s a plant scientist at Washington State University.

He told me that whether something is a vegetable or fruit depends on what part of the plant it comes from.

“Plant products that come from plant parts like roots, leaves or stems are veggies,” Blauer said. “If they come from a flower and bear seeds, they’re a fruit in botanical and scientific terms.”

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Why are cats scared of cucumbers/snakes? — Aurelia, 8, Canada

Dear Aurelia,

It’s been almost ten years since someone went viral for recording a cat freaking out about a cucumber. In that video, a human sneaked up behind a cat while it was eating. They silently placed a cucumber behind the cat. When the cat turned around, it jumped super high and ran away. Soon, lots of people were making those videos.

I asked my friend Jessica Bunch why all those cats were scared. She’s a veterinarian at Washington State University.

She told me that cats can be surprised by new things. That’s especially true if the new thing shows up without warning. Or while the cat has its guard down. Like when a cat is eating, and a human sneaks up with a cucumber.

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How are plants considered living if they don't have a heart or brain? – Lily, Pennsylvania

Dear Lily,

You and I are both animals with backbones, so we have lots in common. Our ways of being alive look similar. We have hearts to pump blood. We have brains that help us think and communicate.

But plants don’t have the same body systems we do.

I talked about your question with my friend Michael Knoblauch. He’s a plant scientist at Washington State University.

He told me plants are seriously good at being alive. In fact, 80% of all the living things on Earth are plants.

“Go out in the forest and look around,” Knoblauch said. “You might see birds and … » More …

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What would happen to female honey bees if male bees didn't exist? – Emmie, 12, Arizona

Dear Emmie,

When I want something sweet, I pull out a jar of honey made by my bee friends at Washington State University. I talked about your question with one of the insect scientists there, Rae Olsson.

They told me a honey bee colony includes one female queen, many female workers and, depending on the time of year, some male drones.

Workers have lots of jobs. They gather nectar and pollen. They take care of each other, the queen and the baby bees.

A drone’s only job is to mate with a queen from another colony.

The queen’s only job is to … » More …

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Why do plants need water? – Emma, 9, New York

Dear Emma,

When I’m thirsty, I pick up a glass of water with my paws and drink it—just like you do. But plants don’t have paws or mouths, so how (and why) do they drink it?

To find the answer, I talked with my friend Helmut Kirchhoff. He’s a scientist at Washington State University. He studies plants and biochemistry.

He told me plants need water inside their cells. Water makes plant cells strong and flexible. It also dissolves stuff. That makes it possible for chemical reactions to happen inside plant cells—like the reactions a plant uses to make energy during photosynthesis. Plants also need water to move around nutrients and other molecules required for life.

“Water is essential for life, but plants must move nutrients from the soil to the leaves,” Kirchhoff said. “So, they have this very nice transport system called xylem. Xylem is an ancient Greek word that means wood. It works like a straw to move water and nutrients from the roots to the leaves.”

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Where do frogs go in the winter? – Landon, 13, Washington

Dear Landon,

When the cold weather comes, I bundle up in a sweater and explore the snow.

But my frog friends are never around then. In fact, I’ve never seen a frog in a sweater.

I asked my friend Erica Crespi why that is. She’s a biologist at Washington State University. She studies frogs and other amphibians.

She told me frogs are different from you and me. We’re warm-blooded. Our bodies use energy to make heat. When it’s cold outside, it’s still warm inside our bodies. We just put on warm clothes to keep our heat from escaping.

But frogs are cold-blooded. They don’t spend a lot of energy making heat. So, when it’s cold outside, it’s cold inside a frog’s body, too. That could be bad news during a winter freeze.

Crespi told me that’s why most frogs living in places with cold winters find a slightly warmer place to hunker down.

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How are the insides of an insect different from a human? – Landon, 11, California

Dear Landon,

I love taking selfies with my insect friends. They’re so tiny and look so different from a big cat like me.

But my friend Rich Zack told me that insects and humans have lots in common. He’s an insect scientist at Washington State University.

“There are body systems that every animal needs,” Zack said. “Insects are relatively advanced animals, so they do a lot of things like humans do.”

That means many of an insect’s body systems are like yours. But there are three body systems that are super different for insects. Those are the skeletal, circulatory and respiratory systems.

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Why does milk cure the spicy feeling in your mouth after you eat something spicy but water doesn't? – Eloise, 10, Minnesota

Dear Eloise,

My work as a science cat has introduced me to human foods—like chips and salsa. I love the spicy taste of salsa, but I always keep a saucer of milk handy.

I talked about why milk calms the spicy feeling with my friend Emily Cukier. She’s a chemistry librarian at Washington State University.

She told me that the spicy feeling comes from something called capsaicin. The amount of capsaicin in a pepper determines how hot it is.

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Why do we have to go to sleep at night, but the other side of the world is having morning? – Braelyn, 12, Ohio

Dear Braelyn,

If I drew a straight line through the Earth to the opposite side of the planet from me, I’d hit a place called Port-aux-Français. That’s an island near Antarctica. Mostly scientists live there.

Right now, it’s 12 PM, or noon, on Friday for me. But those scientists are probably snoozing in their beds. For them, it’s after 12 AM, or midnight, on Saturday. They’re already living in my tomorrow. Weird!

I talked about why that is with my friend David Luftig. He’s a science librarian at Washington State University. Science librarians are experts in two things: science and helping people find information for research and learning.

He told me it’s all because of Earth’s rotation. As the Earth rotates, or spins, the sun shines on one part of the Earth at a time.

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How do animals breathe underwater? – Kinsley, 9, North Carolina

Dear Kinsley,

Have you ever seen a diving beetle? They’re one of my favorite animals. They live underwater and breathe air from a bubble attached to their butts.

I talked about all the ways animals breathe underwater with my friend Wes Dowd. He’s a marine biologist and animal physiologist. He studies how living things interact with the world around them.

Animals need oxygen. For air-breathers like us, oxygen is mixed into the air. For water-breathers, oxygen is mixed into the water. To get oxygen into our bodies, we all need organs and tissues made of very thin material with lots of surface area. That means lots of places that touch the air or water where oxygen can pass through. Like inside lungs or gills. Or the skin of frogs, toads, newts and salamanders that can live on land or underwater.

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How can we help bees survive harsh winters? – Carla, 10, Texas

Dear Carla,

I keep mason bees. They sleep in cardboard tubes all winter long. I worry about my little bees until I see them chew out of their nesting tubes in the spring.

I talked about how mason bees and all kinds of bees survive winter with my friend Brandon Hopkins. He’s an insect scientist at Washington State University. He manages the honey bees on campus.

The honey bees we see in North America today first arrived with Europeans in the 1600s. We love honey bees because they pollinate our crops and make delicious honey. But there are lots of bees that have always lived here—like bumble bees, squash bees and mason bees. Those are native bees.

Most native bees survive the cold by overwintering in the nests where they were born. That could be tucked into the soil or leafy debris. It could be nestled inside hollow plant stems, holes in wood or tubes like my mason bees. Some native bees like bumble bees live in colonies. Only the queen survives the winter. She digs into the earth or finds a hollow tree and hibernates there.

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Why do birds circle when they find food instead of just going and eating it? – Eden, 7, Michigan

Dear Eden,

I live close to a natural area with lots of birds of prey like hawks and eagles. I love to watch them sit in ginormous nests on top of electrical poles. Or swooping around in big circles while they search for a meal.

I talked about why they circle with my friend Jennifer Phillips. She’s a wildlife ecologist at Washington State University. She studies the relationship between birds and the environment.

She told me that birds of prey fly in a circle because they’re riding warm air currents called thermal updrafts or thermals. As the sun heats the Earth, some pockets of air get hotter than others. That warmer air rises. Birds can hop on those warm, rising thermals and ride them. That saves energy.

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Why do some people just seem so much smarter than others, no matter how hard I try to be good at studies? – Alexa, 12, Hong Kong

Dear Alexa,

As a science cat, I talk to some of the smartest scientists on the planet. It can be intimidating. Especially when I talk with people who are experts at things that are hard for me.

I talked about what it means to be a good student with Kira Carbonneau. She’s an educational psychologist at Washington State University.

She told me that everyone grows and learns at different rates. Just like people learn to walk or talk or ride a bike at different rates.

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How does your body heal cuts and scrapes? – Liam, 11, California

Dear Liam,

Did you know your skin is the largest organ in your body? The average 5th grader has more than 6 pounds of skin. Whoa.

Skin protects the inside of your body from the dirty outside world. It keeps your insides from drying out and ensures a steady body temperature. It lets you feel things you touch.

Your skin also has the incredible ability to heal itself. I talked about that with my friend Edward Johnson. He teaches classes about the human body in the School of Biological Sciences at Washington State University.

“Skin is the point of contact between you and everything in your environment,” Johnson said. “So, it's evolved the ability to regenerate.”

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Why do cats rub their cheeks on stuff? – Lara, 10, New York

Dear Lara,

Sometimes I get an overwhelming urge to rub my face on things I love—like my microscope. Other times I’m so happy to see my tortoiseshell roommate that we bump our heads together.

I talked about why I do that with my friend Dr. Jessica Bell. She’s a veterinarian at Washington State University.

She told me that cats rub their cheeks on things when they’re happy or want to say that thing belongs to them.

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Why do cats purr? – Kaylee, 11, Kentucky

Dear Kaylee,

I purr all. the. time. I purr when I get a good question like yours. I purr when I finish answering a question. I even purr when I’m struggling to find an answer.

Luckily, Dr. Sarah Guess says that’s normal. She’s a veterinarian at Washington State University. She told me that cats purr when they’re content and when they’re stressed out. It can be a little confusing for humans.

Scientists have two ideas about why cats purr. It could have come from the way mother cats care for kittens. Or it could keep their bones and tissues healthy.

But experts don’t agree on the answer yet.

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What do robots eat? Why do they have mouths if they don’t eat food? – Oliver, 4, Virginia

Dear Oliver,

I just scarfed down tuna with a side of kibble. That’s how I get the energy I need to investigate your questions.

To do that, I talked with Ming Luo. He’s a robotics scientist at Washington State University.

He told me that robots don’t eat like we do.

“A human has a digestive system,” Luo said. “That’s how food can be converted to energy. But a robot can’t do that. The robot can just take in energy directly.”

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What makes fireflies light up at night? – Asher, 7, Maryland

Dear Asher,

When I was a kitten, there were tons of fireflies in my grandparents’ yard. My litter mates and I loved to gently catch them and let them go.

I talked with my friend Richard Zack about how and why fireflies light up. He’s an insect scientist at Washington State University.

Those glowing insects are a kind of beetle. But we call them fireflies or lightning bugs. Their glow is a form of bioluminescence. That’s when a chemical reaction inside a living thing makes it light up.

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Why do owls stay up at night? – Zelezina, 8 ½, Maryland

Dear Zelezina,

I love how humans use figures of speech about animals to describe their behavior. An early bird is someone who likes to get up early. A night owl is someone who loves to be awake late at night—like an owl.

I talked about why owls stay up all night with my friend Dr. Marcie Logsdon. She’s a wildlife veterinarian at Washington State University.

She told me that for many owls, the dark is a good time to catch a meal.

“Owls are just taking advantage of a time when they can excel at finding prey because there are a lot of other things that are active at night, too—like rodents,” Logsdon said.

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How does hair grow? – Aidric, 9, Ohio

Dear Aidric,

My whole body is covered in thick, glossy cat fur. Humans look mostly furless. But people grow hair on every part of their bodies except the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. Most human hair is just super fine and hard to see.

That’s what my friend Edward Johnson told me. He teaches classes about the human body in the School of Biological Sciences at Washington State University.

He also told me hair grows from follicles. Those are special organs in the top layer of the skin. Everything you need to grow hair is inside the follicle.

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Why don't birds get electrocuted when they sit on power lines? – Angel, 14, California

Dear Angel,

I’ve never sat on a power line. I like to keep my paws firmly on the ground. But birds love resting there, especially in winter. Power lines give off a little heat, so it’s a good spot for birds to snuggle together and stay warm.

I talked about how they do that safely with my friend Javier Guerrero. He’s a professor of electrical and computer engineering at Washington State University.

He told me birds do get electrocuted on power lines sometimes. But that won’t happen if the bird touches just the power line—and doesn’t touch other lines or the pole at the same time.

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Why do dogs have tails? – Bailey, 7, Ohio

Dear Bailey,

My best friend is a golden retriever. When I get home, she greets me with a goofy smile and a big wag of her fluffy tail.

I talked about why she has a tail with my friend Jillian Haines. She’s a veterinarian at Washington State University.

She told me dogs use their tails for lots of things. Tails help dogs balance while running, jumping or swimming. Tails help dogs communicate with each other and other animals. Some dogs in the Arctic—like sled dogs—use their tails to stay warm. They curl up and cover their noses with their fluffy tails.

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Do fish and sharks drink water? – Copper, 9, Florida

Dear Copper,

All living things need water. It’s how life works on Earth. But do animals that swim in water drink water?

I talked about that with my friend Nora Hickey. She’s a fish veterinarian at Washington State University.

She told me it depends on the kind of fish. Saltwater fish constantly drink water. Freshwater fish drink hardly any water.

It’s all about the salts inside their bodies. Those salts make their muscles and nervous systems work.

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Who invented the calendar? – Audrey, 9, Oregon

Dear Audrey,

I use a calendar to keep up with my work as a science cat. I also love calendar apps that count down to big events—like my birthday. People have always tracked time for work and holidays.

I talked about this with my friend Nikolaus Overtoom. He’s a professor of ancient history at Washington State University.

He told me we use the Gregorian calendar today. That's a revised version of the Julian calendar. The Romans invented the Julian calendar.

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What diseases spread on pirate ships? – Anika, 9, Georgia

Dear Anika,

A pirate’s life was dangerous. They attacked other ships and battled other pirates as well as the law. But they were also at the mercy of another foe: sickness.

I talked about this with my friend Lawrence Hatter. He’s a history professor at Washington State University.

He told me the big era for pirates was 1710 to 1730. It was a time when lots of sailors were out of work. Some of them became pirates.

Here are four kinds of disease they might face on the job: scurvy, mosquito-borne diseases, infectious diseases and gangrene.

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Why do babies cry? – Camren, 7, Indiana

Dear Camren,

I was a very quiet kitten. I only cried when I needed something. But some kittens in my litter cried all the time.

I talked about this with my friend Masha Gartstein. She’s a psychology professor at Washington State University. She studies how babies develop different temperaments. That’s how you relate to the world around you in a way that’s unique and fairly consistent.

Gartstein told me babies cry because they’re helpless. They need a way to signal that they need something.

“Babies are born into this world needing a lot of assistance—and without a lot of communication tools,” she said. “Crying is a very powerful communication tool.”

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What organisms do you think would survive an apocalypse of extreme radiation? – Marshall, 11, New Zealand

Dear Marshall,

Sometimes I get x-rays at the veterinarian. They work by sending a small amount of powerful energy—called radiation—through my body. X-rays only contain a small amount of radiation. Too much radiation would harm my cells.

The organisms most likely to survive extreme radiation might be microbes. These creatures are so tiny you need a microscope to see them.

To learn more, I talked with my friend Cynthia Haseltine. She’s a microbiologist at Washington State University. She studies extremophiles. These microbes love intense environments. Boiling heat? Freezing cold? Blistering acid? Yes, please.

Haseltine told me the amount of radiation an organism can survive is measured in grays. Just 5 grays of radiation will kill a human. Here are five organisms that can survive way more than that.

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Why do crickets make sound? – Carola, 7, Virginia

Dear Carola,

Have you ever read the book “The Very Quiet Cricket?” It’s about a young cricket who can’t chirp until he grows up.

My friend Rich Zack reminded me of that book when we talked about your question. He’s an insect scientist at Washington State University.

He told me only adult male crickets make sound. Sometimes they chirp to defend their territories. It’s how they tell other male crickets to stay away.

But the main reason they chirp is to find a mate. Cricket chirps are mating songs. That song will be different for different kinds of crickets—and the song changes when the female cricket shows up.

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I want to know how snake venom in the antidote makes sense? – Raagini, 10, New York

Dear Raagini,

One of my roommates is a corn snake named Buddy. He’s not venomous. But he’s a very private individual and really likes his space.

Buddy and I talked about your question with my friend Blair Perry. He’s a biologist at Washington State University. He’s an expert on snakes and venom.

Perry told me antivenom doesn’t contain actual snake venom. It’s made with antibodies to snake venom.

Antibodies are proteins. They’re part of your immune system. They travel in your blood to fight germs or dangerous molecules—like those in venom—that could hurt you. Sometimes we get vaccines to boost our antibodies so they’re ready when something harmful shows up.

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Do your eyeballs grow? – Ashlynn, 8, Utah

Dear Ashlynn,

I was the cutest kitten. I bet you were an adorable baby, too. Like me, you probably had a big, round head with chubby cheeks and huge eyes.

The fact babies have big eyes made some people think babies are born with adult-sized eyeballs. I talked about this with my friend Edward Johnson. He teaches classes about the human body in the School of Biological Sciences at Washington State University.

“It’s a very good question because there’s a lot of misinformation about it,” Johnson said. “Eyeballs do grow—but not very much compared with other parts of the body.”

He told me to … » More …

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Do insects have blood in their bodies? – Raman, 7, Washington

Dear Raman,

You probably don’t look like an insect. You don’t have feelers or wings. You keep your skeleton inside your body instead of on the outside. But what about blood? Do insects have blood like yours?

I talked about this with my friend Richard Zack. He’s an entomologist at Washington State University.

“Insects have hemolymph,” he said. “It’s very similar to blood.”

Zack told me hemolymph moves differently through the body, and it doesn’t do everything blood does.

Humans and other mammals have closed circulatory systems. That means their blood travels in blood vessels. A heart pumps the blood all over the … » More …

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How did our planet get to be the one with breathable air? – Jacob, 11, Idaho

Dear Jacob,

When I wake up from a cat nap, I stretch and take a deep breath. It feels good to fill my lungs with oxygen.

But that wasn’t always possible on Earth.

I talked about this with my friend Sean Long. He’s a geologist at Washington State University.

“The cool thing is the answer has to do with life,” Long said. “Early life forms on Earth gave us all the oxygen. They were single-celled bacteria.”

Our planet is about 4.5 billion years old. There’s been life on Earth for 3.5 billion years. The first life forms were made of just one cell. They were bacteria and their cousins called archaea.

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How do you tell if your betta fish is happy or depressed? – Neely, 10, Oregon

Dear Neely,

As a science cat, I handle going to the veterinarian better than most. I see it as a meeting of scientific minds. But I had no idea some veterinarians specialize in fish.

I learned all about fish medicine from my friend Nora Hickey. She’s a fish veterinarian at Washington State University. She works in the Washington Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory. She helps fish at zoos and hatcheries stay healthy.

Hickey told me you can watch a betta's behavior to see if it's happy. Happy bettas swim around. They interact with things in their tanks and act interested when you come close.

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What happens if you get sucked up by a black hole? – Amari, 10, North Carolina

Dear Amari,

I was fascinated by black holes as a kitten. I liked them because they were scary. But they’re also far away so I knew I was safe.

I talked about this with my friend Vivienne Baldassare. She’s an astronomer at Washington State University.

Baldassare told me a black hole is an area in space with lots of gravity. That’s the same force that pulls your body toward the Earth.

“If we want to send a spacecraft somewhere else in the solar system, it has to travel fast enough to escape the gravity of Earth—so the rocket doesn't just fall back down to Earth,” she said. “A black hole is a place where that escape speed is the speed of light. Nothing can move faster than the speed of light. So, nothing can escape from inside the black hole.”

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Are unicorns real? – Emma, 8, Minnesota

Dear Emma,

My favorite animated GIFs are the ones with cats riding unicorns. I’m delighted to tell you about a real unicorn that lived a long time ago: the Siberian unicorn.

The Siberian unicorn was bulky and furry. It had a big hump on its back. Its horn was three feet long. That’s as big as a human preschooler!

This real-life unicorn was a kind of rhino from Eurasia. But it was bigger than modern rhinos and probably galloped like a horse.

Scientists have known about Siberian unicorns since 1808. For a long time, they thought the unicorns went extinct 200,000 years ago. Recently, that changed. Now they think the unicorns went extinct closer to 39,000 years ago.

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How does evolution work? – Aubree, 10, Kentucky

Dear Aubree,

When I thought about evolution, I always pictured big changes that happened over long time periods—like how birds evolved from dinosaurs.

But then I talked with my friend Jeremiah Busch. He’s a biologist at Washington State University. He told me evolution is happening all the time.

“As soon as you see that evolution is occurring around us, it changes the way you think about the world,” Busch said.

There are a few ways evolution happens. These include mutation, gene flow, genetic drift and natural selection.

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Do ants hibernate in the winter? – Garrett, 10, Illinois

Dear Garrett,

When most people think about hibernation, they picture bears snoozing away the cold winter in their dens. You’re right that other animals do that, too.

I talked about your question with my friend Laurel Hansen. She’s an entomology professor at Washington State University. Her specialty is carpenter ants.

“We think most ants in our temperate climate will have diapausing larvae and what I would call overwintering adults,” Hansen said.

Diapausing and overwintering are like hibernating but not quite the same. There are a few things to know about ants to understand what these terms mean.

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How many beetles are there in the world? – Tu, 12, Utah

Dear Tu,

If beetles seem to be everywhere, that’s because they are. Some beetles stand out because they’re colorful. Think about jewel beetles and ladybugs. Others play useful and weird roles in the ecosystem—like the poop-rolling dung beetle. Their ancestors probably even ate dinosaur poop.

Nobody knows exactly how many beetles there are, but scientists have some ideas. I talked about it with my friend Joel Gardner. He’s the collection manager for the insect museum at Washington State University.

When scientists find a new species, they describe what it looks like. They give it a name. They publish that information so other people know about it. That’s called describing a species. Scientists describe new insect species all the time.

Gardner told me scientists have described about 400,000 species of beetles so far. There are many more beetles we don’t know about yet. Altogether, there are probably between 1 million and 2 million beetle species.

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What is the difference between B cells and T cells in the immune system? – Tanveer, 11, California

Dear Tanveer,

Everyone who heard your question agreed that it’s a sophisticated one. To get my paws around the answer, I talked with my friend Phil Mixter. He’s an immunology professor at Washington State University.

He told me all living things need to protect themselves from microbes that could make them sick. These are called pathogens. They can be bacteria, viruses, fungi or parasites.

“Almost every organism I can think of—from plants to animals and beyond—has a defense system to handle the possibility that another organism might sneak in,” Mixter said.

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Did dinosaurs eat humans? – Brileigh, 10, North Carolina

Dear Brileigh,

If you looked inside a T. rex mouth, you’d see some 12-inch teeth. That’s longer than my tail!

I asked my friend Aaron Blackwell if dinosaurs used those big chompers on humans. He’s an anthropologist who studies human biology at Washington State University. He told me dinosaurs and humans didn’t live at the same time.

“Dinosaurs died out 65 million years ago—before there were even primates,” Blackwell said. “So, they could never have eaten a human or even a monkey.”

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What if there were no predators to eat the birds? – Katy, 10, Hawaii

Dear Katy,

Don’t let the lab coat fool you. I enjoy chattering at birds as much as the next cat. Staring out the window and vibrating my mouth to “chirp” helps me relax after a long day.

My wild cousins do take things a bit further—namely, predation. It’s not pretty, but it’s an important part of keeping life in balance.

I talked about predators with my friend Travis King. He’s a Ph.D. student at Washington State University. He studies big cats like lynx and jaguars.

“It's a balancing act between predators, disease, food and space,” King said. “If you take away predators, you lose one of the factors keeping an ecosystem in balance.”

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Who invented games? – Kinzie, 6, Ohio

This column first published February 17, 2023. It was updated to include Ice Age rondelles and republished December 18, 2023.

Dear Kinzie,

Board games, video games, a long piece of yarn… I love them all. I took a break from batting around a catnip-filled mouse toy to talk about your question with my friend, Washington State University professor Jordan Clapper, who told me the answer is a mystery.

“That's almost impossible to know—for some really fun reasons,” Clapper said. “Every culture has games. It even extends beyond being human. If you've ever seen a dog or a cat play, they're playing a game. “

The earliest board game we’ve found is more than 4,600 years old. Archaeologist Leonard Woolley dug it up in a tomb from Sumer (modern-day Iraq). That tomb was in the Royal Cemetery of Ur, so he named it the Royal Game of Ur.

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Celebrate Black History Month

February is a great time to celebrate Black scientists who changed the world—and those transforming science right now.

I talked about Black History Month with Amir Gilmore. He’s a professor and associate dean in the College of Education at Washington State University.

“There are so many things that Black people have created that we just don't think about,” he said. “So, when I think about Black History Month, it gives me joy that other people made these inventions. Where would we be without refrigerated trucks or stoplights? Where would we be without telephone technology? I'm thankful that Black people thought about what the world needed and provided those things.”

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Is it true that seven human years equals one dog year? – Cameren, 12, Kentucky

Dear Cameren,

Humans have kept dogs as pets for more than 14,000 years. That close friendship inspires scientists to explore questions like yours.

I talked about how dogs age with my friend Ryan Baumwart. He’s a heart doctor for dogs. He teaches in the veterinary hospital at Washington State University.

I asked Baumwart if a dog year is equal to seven human years.

“I think it's a good general rule,” he said. “But some larger breed dogs like bullmastiffs and Great Danes have a shorter lifespan of 6 to 8 years. So if you do the math, they get shorted. Then some small breed dogs like Chihuahuas seem to live forever.”

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How do animals teach their kids how to survive if animals can't talk? — Riley, 11, Texas

Dear Riley,

There’s really nothing cuter than baby animals. Many animal parents invest lots of time into caring for their young and teaching them to survive.

I talked about your question with my friend Amber Adams-Progar. She’s an animal sciences professor at Washington State University. She’s also an expert in dairy cow behavior. She told me that non-human animals learn in ways that are like how humans learn.

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If an animal has poison inside them, how are they not affected by their own poison? – Jad, 10, Georgia

Dear Jad,

From jellyfish to snakes to spiders, lots of animals use poison or venom. It helps them catch prey and defend themselves. Even the platypus and one very spicy primate called the slow loris use venom.

I talked about your question with my friend Blair Perry. He’s a biologist at Washington State University. He’s also a snake expert.

Perry told me the difference between poison and venom. They’re both toxic mixes of mostly proteins. But they get into your body in different ways. Poison is eaten, breathed in or absorbed through the skin. Venom is injected through a bite or sting.

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Why do you get acne? – Joey, 12, Illinois

Dear Joey,

Whether we call them pimples, spots or zits, acne is something most people experience. As many as 95% of people have some acne sometime. That’s nearly everybody.

I talked about acne with my friend Sarah Fincham. She has a clinical doctorate in nursing. She’s a nurse and a professor in the College of Nursing at Washington State University.

If you look at your skin, you’ll see tiny openings called pores. These pores connect to oil-producing glands under our skin. They’re called sebaceous glands, and the oil they make is called sebum.

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How is inflation caused? – Raymond, 12, California

Dear Raymond,

When I reached out to my friend Christopher Clarke with your question, he said, “That’s so cool that a kid is asking about inflation!” I agree.

Clarke is an economics professor at Washington State University. He told me inflation is the average rise in prices for goods and services.

So, what are goods and services? Let’s say you go to a restaurant and order enchiladas. The enchiladas are goods. You can see them, touch them and taste them. Services are the other parts of your dining experience. The people who take your order, cook your food and wash your dishes are all providing services.

The price you pay for goods and services changes over time.

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How long do you have to train to become a scientist? – Katelyn, Texas

Dear Katelyn,

Maybe you dream of pointing your telescope toward distant galaxies. Or zooming in on microscopic life on Earth. Being a scientist is an amazing job. You can also do science for fun—no matter your age or anything else about you. It belongs to everyone.

I talked about science training with my friend Kalli Stephens. She’s earning her bachelor’s degree in genetics and cell biology from Washington State University. WSU has a strong undergraduate research program. So, Stephens has been working as a scientist while going to school.

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Do animals have religion like humans? – Anna, 12, Hong Kong

Dear Anna,

When I read your question, I thought about elephants. There’s evidence that elephants have complex emotions—like grief when their relatives die or affection for humans who help them. Whales, dolphins, non-human primates and even dogs sometimes seem like they have complex emotions, too.

It makes us wonder if animals seek comfort and meaning the same ways humans do—like through religion. We truly don’t know the answer to your question. It’s something people have wondered about for a long time.

Exploring deep questions is the work of my friend Joe Campbell. He’s a philosopher at Washington State University.

We often think of religion as beliefs and behaviors. They relate to the supernatural—something beyond us and what we see in the natural world.

Campbell told me that underneath many religious beliefs and behaviors is a feeling: awe. It’s a proto-religious attitude. Proto means first.

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How do starfish eat? – Hailey, 7, Maryland

Dear Hailey,

Starfish might have the coolest—and strangest—way of gobbling up a snack.

I learned all about it from my friend Cori Kane. She studied coral reefs when she was a biology Ph.D. student at Washington State University. Now she works for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. She writes policies to help protect the ocean and the animals that live there.

“Sea stars are probably one of the weirdest creatures. I don't know any other organism that basically barfs out its stomach to eat,” Kane said.

Yes, you heard that right. She said sea stars barf out their stomachs.

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How do gems form underground? – Jett, 11, Kansas

Dear Jett,

When I was a kitten, I loved collecting rocks and gems. So, I was very excited to talk about your question with my friend Johannes Haemmerli. He studies minerals in the School of the Environment at Washington State University.

Minerals are solids that form from non-living elements in nature. They have a very specific structure for how those elements are arranged. Haemmerli told me that nearly all gems are minerals or sometimes mixtures of minerals.

You’re right that gems form underground. A diamond forms when the element carbon is buried nearly 100 miles deep inside the Earth. It’s super-hot and there’s tons of pressure down there. Eventually the pressure pushes the carbon atoms together to form the mineral we call diamond. Above ground, where there is much less pressure, the same carbon can come together and form a mineral we call graphite. That’s the “lead” of your pencil.

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Who invented books? – Nicole, 6, Washington

Dear Nicole,

Some people only like paper books. But I love the library app on my phone. It’s like having stacks of library books in my pocket.

To learn more about books, I talked with my friend Greg Matthews. He’s the rare books librarian at Washington State University. “The short answer would probably be the Romans,” Matthews said. “But Rome was a really vast empire. So, it could have been a Roman in North Spain. It could have been a Roman in Egypt.”

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What are microorganisms? –Trystan, 11, North Carolina

Dear Trystan,

One of my favorite things to do is look at pond water with a microscope. I love to see all the teeny tiny critters zooming around in a single drop.

I talked about microorganisms, also called microbes, with my friend Claire Burbick. She’s a microbiologist at Washington State University. She told me the key trait for microbes is size. Microbes are micro—which means extremely small.

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Do animals feel home-like in wildlife sanctuaries? – Haniya, 8, Pakistan

Dear Haniya,

There are lots of things that make a place feel like home. Your home is probably full of sights, sounds and smells that feel familiar and cozy. Those things are important for animals in captivity, too.

To find out more, I talked with Charles Robbins, a wildlife biologist at Washington State University. He started the WSU Bear Center. It’s the only grizzly bear research center in the United States.

“The most important thing to bears and probably most animals is a feeling of safety—that they’re not being hurt, and the food is good,” Robbins said. “Probably all the same things that … » More …

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When was the first bee made? – Henry, 7, Illinois

Dear Henry,

It’s easy to love bees. They’re furry and buzzy. Along with other insects, birds and bats, they pollinate about one-third of the plants we eat.

I talked about how long bees have been buzzing around Earth with my friend Silas Bossert. He’s an evolutionary biologist in the Department of Entomology at Washington State University.

“The oldest bee fossil that is really without doubt a bee is between 65 and 70 million years old,” Bossert said.

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